Reading fluency includes being able to read all the words in a passage without hesitation, but also to read the passage with prosody – appropriate pace, intonation and inflection, pausing and rhythm.
It is now well-established (see for example Steven’s et al. 2017) that repeated reading is an effective strategy for developing automaticity in terms of word recognition, if it is a part of a larger strategy that teaches the underlying skills of reading (phonological awareness, grapheme knowledge, morphology, etc.).
However, research by Roe and colleagues (2024) found that adding in one further step to repeated reading led to improved prosody and comprehension. They had students mark the text to indicate a natural break within a sentence, that was not marked by punctuation, and to underline words which should be emphasised. In this research, students first listened to the teacher read a phrase and then ‘echoed’ the phrase. They then practised the passage multiple times, with one student reading aloud and the other students reading the text silently.
Based on this research, I would suggest the following steps to effectively use repeated reading as a strategy to build fluency and prosody.
Step 1
Select a passage consisting of 3 or 4 sentences. This passage should contain a significant number of words which use the grapheme(s) students are currently being taught. Preferably, students should also be decoding and learning these key words in isolation first. It is also beneficial if the passage is written in ‘eye-span’ lengths rather than across the whole page (see Rayner et al.’s, 2010 research).
Step 2
Ask students to read the passage backwards (i.e., from the last word to the first word). This strategy is recommended by Kilpatrick (2015) as it ensures the student’s focus is on decoding and not guessing.
Students should only read the passage backwards once.
Step 3
As students are reading the passage backwards, underline any word that they don’t immediately recognise and help the students to decode those words.
Step 4
Once the students have read the whole passage backward, have them practise just the words that they didn’t immediately recognise – first in isolation and then in the line in which it occurred.
Step 5
Once students are able to automatically read all words, then begin timing. While timing, place a piece of card above the words students are reading. When they read the last or second last word in each line, immediately cover that line with the piece of card. If you are a fluent reader, you are decoding ahead of the words that you are reading out loud. This technique encourages this process.
During timing, all errors need to be corrected and this should be included as a part of the time. Students need to be able to read accurately AND fluently. Similarly, if students cannot remember the word when you have pushed down the piece of card, lift it up for them to see.
Students continue rereading the passage until the predetermined time goal is reached. This time can be determined by timing yourself reading the passage at an appropriate pace.
It is very important that before students reread the passage that all words read incorrectly and lines containing hesitations are practised. If you don’t do this, then they are just practising and consolidating errors!
Step 6
Once students are able to read the passage fluently, the teacher reads the passage, phrase by phrase, with the correct prosody, helping the student ‘markup’ the passage to indicate words to be emphasised and additional breaks not indicated by punctuation. The student should echo each phrase trying to copy the teacher’s expression, intonation, inflections, etc.
The students then attempt to read the passage with similar prosody. If necessary, the teacher can intervene at the end of each sentence to provide feedback and further modelling. The student continues rereading the passage until the desired goal is met.
At this step, it can also be useful to record the students reading the passage and to play back the recording for them to analyse and compare to previous attempts.
Step 7
Ask the students some comprehension questions about the passage. I also think it is a useful time to start systematically teaching and having students identify the different parts of speech.
Note: A ‘well-read’ passage should sound similar to listening to a person speak – not too fast and not too slow – with appropriate expression. Being able to read with appropriate expression is also a good indicator of comprehension.
References
Kilpatrick, D (2015). Assessing, preventing and overcoming reading difficulties. John Wiley & Sons: NJ
Rayner, K., Slattery, T. J., & Bélanger, N.,N. (2010). Eye movements, the perceptual span, and reading speed. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (Pre-2011), 17(6), 834-839.
Roe, K., Slater, P., Galeza, A., & Rasinski, T. (2024). Fluency in focus. Literacy Today, 42(2), 22-23.
Stevens, E.A., Melodee A. Walker, M.A., & Vaughn, S. (2017). The effects of reading fluency interventions on the reading fluency and reading comprehension performance of elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(5), 576–590.